Kinship Organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Kinship Organizations - Essay Example The Kinship System and Culture of Yonomamo Their social life is organized around the respected tribesmen, where kinship relationship descent from ancestors and marriages between these kinships. According to Webster (2004), the tribesmen are given responsibility to maintain order in the villages and determine the village’s relationships with people of other villages. The tribesmen are given these positions owing to kinship and marriage customs, and it depends on the main kinship groups in the villages they come from. Webster (2004) indicates that the social changes within Yonomamo villages are based on giving and receiving marriageable girls in society. Thus, marriages are arranged by order kin, who include uncles, brothers and fathers of the spouse. Marriage in Yonomamo is based on the political process where girls are promised marriages while their extremely young, and men involved forms alliances with other men via marriage exchanges. There is inadequate of women in the Yono mamo due to the sex ratio imbalance in the younger ages that result in men having more than one wife. In case of fighting in the village, this is as a result of sexual relationships and attacks done to married women by other men. Meanwhile, the fight can cause internal fighting and conflicts of such greatness that lead to splitting and fission of villages, and create new villages. Yonomamo have a series of quality forms of violence that include club fighting and chest pounding that prevent severe violence like shooting to kill. This offers them a great deal of flexibility in resolving the conflict without immediate resort to deadly violence (Webster, 2004). Meanwhile, they have incorporated patterns of alliance and friendship that serve to limit violence these include trading and feasting with others in order to promote friendships. According to Webster (2004), the thin line between friendship and hostility must be controlled by village leaders whose political acumen and strategies are both admirable and complex. The Yonomamo have developed one unique language that each community speaks in variety version of this language. Traditionally, they had no written language, but depended on the same words to describe several different things. For instance the Yonomamo word â€Å"Xawara† can mean disease, gold and epidemics at the same time; thus, they communicate by chanting, telling stories and using lively expressions. The Yonomamo culture does not have political readers or police force to keep law and order. However, they depend on village leaders, who do not have power over anyone, but are allowed to make suggestions about matters of daily activities. Children are an essential part of the Yonomamo culture that means the more children living in a village; the more they assisted with household tasks. To increase chances of having many, men are allowed to marry many wives that give the family a better chance of continuity. Moreover, the ceremonies are another significant part of the Yonomamo culture, and they are carried for many reasons and used to communicate with spirit. Webster (2004) indicates that ceremonial hunts may be introduced to practice catching a specific animal and they usually take part with the whole family. Meanwhile, they travel to other villages to share stories and socialize with other groups; thus, family and relationship are a significant part

Introduction to social media in the classroom Research Proposal

Introduction to social media in the classroom - Research Proposal Example The intended audience for this study will be teachers, students and administrators of institutions who are keen to reduce the negative effect that social media has in classroom learning and gain from the benefits that it promises to bring. This study is important in the sense that it provides insights to how social media has been used by students in classroom settings; this will inform this research on how to carry out this (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2012). Literature will also provide insights on how scholars designed their research in order to answer their research questions; this will be relevant in this study since the research design used by previous scholars may be applicable to this study, therefore saving on time. The literature reviewed will also be used as a comparison tool for this study to ascertain the precision of the result. An experimental design will be used where the respondents will be divided into two groups, the experiment group will be allowed to access social sites for a week where statistics on their usage will be carried out, and the other group will not be allowed to use social networks for a week, after the experimentation period, questionnaires were given to the students. The study population is defined as all the elements involved in a study that satisfy the sample selection criteria to be included in the study, in our case, the population consists of all the students and the teaching staff of selected institutions. A sample size of 60 students was selected from schools where the experimental group would consist of 40 students and the remaining 20 would belong to the control group. The students who were selected to participate in the study were required to have been in the institution for at least one academic year and must be active users of at least two social media sites. A questionnaire and an in-depth interview were identified as the most

Disability awareness in the workplace

Disability awareness in the workplace Disability Awareness in the Workplace Employers have been encouraged to hire individuals with disabilities for decades.   However, regardless of the push by government agencies, public education programs, and grassroots employment organizations, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports that the unemployment rate for disabled persons at the end of 2009 hovered at right around 14 percent; thats nearly twice the unemployment rate of workers without disabilities.   Interestingly, the rates are higher for men with disabilities than for women.   Disabled individuals are underemployed in most workplaces and this may be at least part of the reason that many non-disabled workers are often confused and embarrassed when interacting with them; they simply dont know how to look past the disability. If all you see is the disabilityyou might be missing a lot. People with disabilities are just people. Meredith Vieira, NBC News To combat the discomfort that non-disabled workers feel, many workplaces have initiated programs that â€Å"teach† workers how to interact with their disabled coworkers a sort of sensitivity training.   These programs also help lessen the burden disabled workers may feel when entering a workplace staffed with individuals who may have previously had few interactions with disabled individuals.   Any employer can initiate such a program and should focus on two key areas: communication and interaction.   Its not difficult to understand how communicating and interacting with an individual who requires the assistance of a wheelchair to get around might be somewhat different from communicating and interacting with an individual who might be deaf or hard of hearing.   However, even though disabled individuals may ultimately have different needs, most basic communication and interaction facts remain the same regardless of the disability. Understanding How Outdated or Insulting Disability Terms May Be Inappropriate Many people have no idea that referring to a disabled person as handicapped might be insulting.   Handicapped is an outdated term that refers to an individual as the sum of his or her disability.   Disabled persons are so much more than that.   Referring to someone as disabled removes the disability as a definition of the individual and instead renders it a mere characteristic; no more than someone having blue eyes or red hair, or than someone being tall or short.  Ã‚   Refrain from using outdated or insulting terms when interacting with or referring to disabled individuals.   Outdated terms include â€Å"crippled,† â€Å"lame,† and â€Å"mute.† Respect the Needs of Disabled Coworkers The equipment that some disabled persons need to work often perplexes non-disabled coworkers.   Although the disabled person may not think twice about this equipment, non-disabled individuals may feel that they have to address this equipment in some way or help their disabled coworkers maneuver throughout the workplace.   Neither of these situations is usually the case. Although non-disabled individuals may have been taught that, to be polite, they must â€Å"help† a disabled person, most disabled people are very adept at getting around and managing their equipment.   Never assume that someone in a wheelchair needs you to push him/her onto an elevator or that they need you to hold equipment as they get into their car.   Always ask if a disabled person needs assistance.   Never just assume that they do.   Disabled people value their independence as much as non-disabled people.   Robbing them of that independence in the name of being helpful or polite is not a help but an insult.   A disabled person who needs assistance will be happy you asked, and one that doesnt will value your respect. Another interaction issue to consider is how to maneuver around a disabled persons equipment.   Remember, their equipment whether it is a wheelchair, canes or crutches, or even a guide dog is like an extension of them.   Its no more appropriate for someone to grab or move equipment than it is for someone to grab the arm or hand of a coworker without being asked or without offering help.   It is no more appropriate to lean on someones wheelchair than it would be to lean on a stranger in an elevator.   Everyone has personal space, including disabled individuals.   Requests for Help Many people are too busy to consider a request for assistance from a disabled coworker as anything more than a nuisance.   But, those same people wouldnt think twice about helping a coworker that dropped an armload of file folders or one who fell on an icy sidewalk.   People with disabilities who need accommodations are not complaining and their requests for assistance should be responded to graciously; just as graciously as you would to someone who dropped something or someone who slipped on the ice.   Everyone needs a bit of help at one time or another; some people just need help a bit more often. It is so important to see past an individuals disability.   Disabled persons have as much to contribute in the workplace as non-disabled workers.   We often make adjustments when interacting with non-disabled people without even thinking about it; we interact differently with everyone.   Theres no need to feel uncomfortable or confused when dealing with a disabled coworker.   Its simply a matter of understanding what we have often been taught to ignore.

Education Budget Cuts: America’s Future Looks Bleak Essay -- Impact of

Since the 2008 economic recession, public schools have experienced drastic cuts to funding, Paw Paw High School included. With my high school being forced to make curriculum adjustments in order to accommodate its depleted budget, I suffered great shortfalls. Due to the elimination of teachers, I had increased class sizes and no longer received the one-on-one attention in the classroom. Also, the electives that I had looked so forward to taking in middle school were no longer provided once I made it to high school. I am grateful, however that unlike other schools, Paw Paw has not had to implement a four-day school week as a means to stretch budgets as far as possible. I have read that rising costs, depleted emergency federal aid, and reduced revenues are said to be the causes of sequestration’s slashes to K-12 education funding. Advocates say education budget reductions will force schools to budget their funds more effectively, however, America’s future is in jeopardy i f the United States continues to make budget cuts to K-12 education funding. As I had experienced at my high school, there have been countless reports of other students throughout the nation complaining to their parents about the lack of attention they are receiving in the classroom. Resulting from budget cuts, numerous teaching positions have been eliminated. â€Å"With fewer teachers come larger class sizes† (Roza). One case in particular, released to the Huffington Post (â€Å"Larger Class Sizes, Education Cuts Harm Children’s Chance to Learn†), involves an outgoing eight-year-old named Shania. She attends a public school in Queens, New York. She had finished her second grade year as Student of the Month and was excited to start the third grade. One week into the school... ...uts Harm Children's Chance to Learn." Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, Inc., 17 July 2012. Web. 25 Oct. 2014. Leachman, Michael, and Phil Oliff. "New School Year Brings Steep Cuts in State Funding for Schools." Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Matrix Group International, Inc., 7 Oct. 2011. Web. 24 Oct. 2014. Roza, Marguerite. "Breaking Down School Budgets." Education Next Journal 9.3 (2009). Web. 27 Oct. 2014. "School Budget Cuts: How Students Say Slashes Are Affecting Them." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, Inc., 14 Feb. 2012. Web. 28 Oct. 2014. "Schools Expect Budget Cuts As Economy Sours." NBCNews.com. The Associated Press, 11 Feb. 2008. Web. 29 Oct. 2014. "U.S. Education Secretary Warns that Automatic Budget Cuts Would Hurt Children and Families." ED.gov. U.S. Department of Education, 25 July 2012. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.

Differences between massachusetts and virginia 1607 and 1750 Essay

Both the economics and politics greatly differed between Massachusetts and Virginia between 1607 and 1750. The differences in the percentage of classes were unbelievably large and their entire economic structure differed from each other. Virginia had more risky culture and economics where-as Massachusetts had a more stable economy. The economy of Virginia was based solely on the production of tobacco. The plantation owners had to buy slaves to work the fields so the slave trade industry in Virginia was also a huge factor. The plantation owners were in the very rich, elite category and pretty much ran the politics. Virginia had a ridiculously small middle class and they barely had any say in the elections. The poor classes of Virginia were about 80%of the population and were not even allowed to vote. This made the state/colony of Virginia a very un-democratic and un-representative. There was very little cash flow in Virginia because the elite plantation owners flaunted their wealth as a display of power. This was necessary because this display of power kept the slaves and poor people of the community from revolting. The economy of Virginia was very fragile and brittle. All it would have taken was one drought or one bad tobacco year and Virginia would have been severely hurt economically. The Northern colonies, especially Massachusetts, were much more stable. There was a larger middle class of 65% and there was much more representation in politics in Massachusetts. The economy was much more stable because it didn’t only rely on one form of income. Because there were many harbors in Massachusetts there were more towns which led to the need of new professions. There included Blacksmiths, Clothing makers, Merchants, and sailors. There was also much more cash flow in Massachusetts because there was no need to flaunt wealth and a much larger middle class. Another reason for the greater amounts of cash flow was that the people that lived in Massachusetts were mostly Puritan. The Puritans believed that you should not show your wealth because it was temptation and temptation was a sin. The Puritans were extremely hard-working and that is one of the main reasons the Northern colonies were so successful. The Northern colonies and the Southern colonies differed in many ways but both succeeded in the long run. They may have had different views and completely different economies but both sides will play their own part in the revolution and eventually become one country. The Untied States of America.

Marketing Management paper Essay

Questions: 1. Explain how Marketing affects the outcome of the financial equation: Sales-Expense=Profit. What risk the company might be facing in this equation with regards to marketing? Expound on the importance of marketing in sustaining business growth. (5 points.) In the equation, Sales-Expense=Profit, activities done in Marketing can be said or considered as marketing expenses that includes advertising costs, promotions, PR events and Marketing Research costs (e.g. FGD, etc.). Through the income statement, we can get the Profit or Revenue and costs or expenses. These may include the costs of marketing the product or services with other costs that is deducted from the amount of sales or total sales. The idea is to increase the revenue while costs are incurred through marketing activities. However, in order to achieve this, marketing activities must be done effectively and the costs or expenses should be managed correctly in order to create good results. Marketing activities that are not managed properly may incur additional costs to the company and continue on to increase. This is especially applicable to companies with different product portfolios and margins, wherein they can incur losses once the profitability of a product decreases. Read more:  What is New Public Management? 2. Why do companies resort to market segmentation? Explain why or how segmentation can be an effective market entry/penetration strategy. Give an example not discussed in the class. (10 points) Better matching of customer needs Customer needs differ. Creating separate offers for each segment makes sense and provides customers with a better solution. Enhanced profits for business Customers have different disposable income. They are, therefore, different in how sensitive they are to price. By segmenting markets, businesses can raise average prices and subsequently enhance profits Better opportunities for growth Market segmentation can build sales. For example, customers can be encouraged to â€Å"trade-up† after being introduced to a particular product with an introductory, lower-priced product Retain more customers Customer circumstances change, for example they grow older, form families, change jobs or get promoted, change their buying patterns. By marketing products that appeal to customers at different stages of their life (â€Å"life-cycle†), a business can retain customers who might otherwise switch to competing products and brands Target marketing communications Businesses need to deliver their marketing message to a relevant customer audience. If the target market is too broad, there is a strong risk that (1) the key customers are missed and (2) the cost of communicating to customers becomes too high / unprofitable. By segmenting markets, the target customer can be reached more often and at lower cost Gain share of the market segment Unless a business has a strong or leading share of a market, it is unlikely to be maximizing its profitability. Minor brands suffer from lack of scale economies in production and marketing, pressures from distributors and limited space on the shelves. Through careful segmentation and targeting, businesses can often achieve competitive production and marketing costs and become the preferred choice of customers and distributors. In other words, segmentation offers the opportunity for smaller firms to compete with bigger ones. 3. What can be a good segment to target for a facial care product? Why? What can be a compelling consumer insight and your corresponding value proposition? Illustrate your brand DNA diagram and prepare a positioning statement and a tagline. Outline your IMC campaign. (15 points) Segment – Facial products made especially for men Customer insight – There are many facial products available in the market but focused only on female needs, including anti-ageing products. Facial care products for men are very limited as not all facial care companies delve into the market. However, due to the growing number of men getting more conscious of their appearance, they look for products that are made especially for us. This is also because Men’s skin differs from Ladies thus their skin needs differ. Value proposition – â€Å"Complete men’s facial care regime line: products range from facial soaps, scrubs, non-alcohol based cleansers, and facial lotions. Brand DNA: Category – Facial care for men Character – Clear and Clean for the real man Credibility – Should be tested and approved by Dermatologists and Dermatological Institutes Benefit – Complete men facial regimen: Cleans and Clears the face, while moisturizing he skin. Difference – Made especially for men and men’s skin. Positioning statement – The Product For men of different ages and skin types which provides clear and moisturized skin. Taglin – â€Å"Complete facial regimen for the new man†Ã‚  IMC campaign: TV Advertisements, Newspapers, Men’s Magazines, Bus posters. Storyboard – A construction worker, after a long day building a wall is then seen by his co-workers using a facial wash for women. Co-workers laugh when they see the man has a white face after washing. Co-worker gives the man the facial care product for men. 4. Assuming that you are hired as a marketing manager of a publication company. Your primary task is to develop a new magazine that has a strong  market potential. a. What type of magazine will it be? b. Who will be your target market? c. Estimate or extrapolate the market value potential. What should be the subject mix (topics) of your magazine to attract and sustain readers? d. How will you promote this new magazine? e. What can be a good name for your new magazine? f. Develop DNA diagram and the positioning statement including the tagline. g. What are your pricing and distribution strategies? (20 points) 5. Hair Salons are almost in every corner, be it commercial or residential area. David’s Salon is one of the successful salon chains in the country that is targeting the mid-end of the market. A new phenomenon however took shape in recent years in the form of F Salon Chain and Reyes Cutters that are charging very low fee for a haircut (45.00-50.00 pesos only). For a while the two salons have mushroomed until they suddenly lost esteem. Assuming, you have the capital to establish a hair salon chain, how will you build your brand? Discuss your 7-P strategies. Make sure you provide a brand name and a tagline for your hair salon chain. (20 points.) Brand name: â€Å"Hairline, Careline† Tagline: â€Å"hairline, gone in 60 minutes† People: Adults with receding hairlines. Only a handful of salons or barbershops really focus on people with hairloss or receding hairlines. Product: A line of hair salons especially for individuals losing hair – services would involve scalp treatments, scalp massages and mainly haircuts that hide hair-loss and receding hairlines. Price: Haircut – Php 150; Massage – 200; Scalp treatments – 200-300 (depending on the treatment: e.g. spa or menthol) Placement: SM Malls, Robinsons malls (non-high end malls) Process: Customers come in and is assisted by the front desk for introduction of services. Customer chooses the service. An expert to that service is provided to the customer. Promotion: Newspaper ads, TV commercials, Flyering activities and on-line advertisements and postings on websites like  SULIT.COM, and/or Coupon websites like CASHCASHPINOY. 6. Illustrate the Marketing process that was introduced to the class. Discuss each of the steps in this process including their respective decision points/criteria. (20 points) Discovering / Identifying the Value Segmenting: Identify all possible segments Profiling: Determine the most vulnerable and profitable segment Targeting: Choose your target market Consumer Insighting: Gain consumer insights through research, focus group discussions and/or surveys. Value Offering: Determine your value which is relevant and distinct. This becomes your unique selling proposition. Creating the Value Product Concept: Determine product type, line, depth. Product Development: Determine the features and attributes of your products and how to improve it so that your value proposition will be realized. Branding: Determine Category, Character, Credibility, Benefit and Difference and an appropriate brand name. Positioning: Formulate what you want your target market to perceive about your product and how you want them to understand and accept your value proposition. Create a tagline. Pricing: Determine if higher, parity or lower based on mark-up, targeting or value pricing. Making the Value Accessible Distribution: Determine how you want to go to market (i.e. channels of distribution) Placement Channel Marketing Communicating the Value IMC: Determine how you want to promote your product. EMC 7. Discuss Ansoff’s Growth Matrix. Give examples. (10 points) The Ansoff Matrix, designed by Igor Ansoff, classifies and explains different growth strategies for a company. This matrix is used by companies which have a growth target or a strategy of specialization. This tool, crossing products and markets of a company, facilitates decision making. The Ansoff matrix offers four strategies to achieve the objectives. Market Penetration Trying to make a greater share of an existing market with an existing product. This could involve product re-launch or increasing brand awareness. For example, Ipods can be used for file storage as well, this gained them market share in the storage devices market. Product Development Develop new products to target the company’s existing market segments. For example, Coca Cola introduced Coke Zero and Coke Cherry. Market Development Finding or creating new markets by targeting new parts of the market or by expansion into different markets. For example, San Miguel introduced San Mig Zero targeting the health conscious people that wanted lesser calories but still enjoy beer. Product Diversification Seeking to create or develop new products, lines or product ranges for new markets. For example, when Apple introduced the IPad tablet, which revolutionized how people work and manage taske with tap and swipe on the screen. Existing Products New Products Existing Markets Market Penetration Product Development New Markets Market Development Diversification 8. Discuss BCG Matrix/Grid (10 points) The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix is a simple tool to assess a company’s position in terms of its product range. Question Marks Question marks are products that grow rapidly and as a result consume large amounts of cash, but because they have low market shares they don’t generate much cash. The result is a large net cash consumption. A question mark has the potential to gain market share and become a star, and eventually a cash cow when the market growth slows. If it doesn’t become a market leader it will become a dog when market growth declines. Question marks need to be analyzed carefully to determine if they are worth the investment required to grow market share. Stars Stars generate large sums of cash because of their strong relative market share, but also consume large amounts of cash because of their high growth rate. So the cash being spent and brought in approximately nets out. If a star can maintain its large market share it will become a cash cow when the market growth rate declines. Dogs Dogs have a low market share and a low growth rate and neither generate nor consume a large amount of cash. However, dogs are cash traps because of the money tied up in a business that has little potential. Such businesses are candidates for divestiture. Cash Cows As leaders in a mature market, cash cows exhibit a return on assets that is greater than the market growth rate – so they generate more cash than they  consume. These units should be ‘milked’ extracting the profits and investing as little as possible. They provide the cash required to turn question marks into market leaders. 9. Discuss Product Life Cycle (10 points) The Product Life Cycle (PLC) is used to map the lifespan of a product. There are generally four stages in the life of a product. These four stages are the Introduction stage, the Growth stage, the Maturity stage and the Decline stage. The Four Stages of the Product Life Cycle 1. Introduction: The Introduction stage is probably the most important stage in the PLC. In fact, most products that fail do so in the Introduction stage. This is the stage in which the product is initially promoted. Public awareness is very important to the of a product. If people don’t know about the product they won’t go out and buy it. There are two different strategies you can use to introduce your product to consumers. You can use either a penetration strategy or a skimming strategy. If a penetration strategy is used then prices are set very high initially and then gradually lowered over time. This is a good stategy to use if there are few competitors for your product. Profits are high with this strategy but there is also a great deal of risk. If people don’t want to pay high prices you may lose out. The second pricing strategy is a skimming strategy. In this case you set your prices very low at the beginning and then gradually increase them. This is a good strategy to use if there are alot of competitors who control a large portion of the market. Profits are not a concern under this strategy. The most important thing is to get you product known and worry about making money at a later time. 2. Growth: If you are lucky enough to get your product out of the Introduction stage you then enter this stage. The Growth stage is where your product starts to grow. In this stage a very large amount of money is spent on advertising. You want to of telling the consumer how much better your product is than your competitors’ products. There are several ways to advertise your product. You can use TV and radio commercials, magazine and newspaper ads, or you could get lucky and customers who have bought your product will give good word-of-mouth to their friends/family. If you are successful with your advertising strategy then you will see an increase in sales. Once your sales begin to increase you share of the market will stabilize. Once you get to this point you will probably not be able to take anymore of the market from your competitors. 3. Maturity: The third stage in the Product Life Cycle is the maturity stage. If your product completes the Introduction and Growth then it will then spend a great deal of time in the Maturity stage. During this stage sales grow at a very fast rate and then gradually begin to stabilize. The key to surviving this stage is differentiating your product from the similar products offered by your competitors. Due to the fact that sales are beginning to stabilize you must make your product stand out among the rest. 4. Decline: This is the stage in which sales of your product begin to fall. Either everyone that wants to has bought your product or new, more innovative products have been created that replace yours. Many companies decide to withdrawal their products from the market due to the downturn. The only way to increase sales during this period is to cut your costs reduce your spending. 10. How can Marketing help in nation building? What marketing concept(s) can be more useful for nation building? (5-point bonus) Nation building can be done through promotion of the wonders of the Philippines using advertisements that can be shown using international programs such as CNN and BBC. Commercials that would emphasize the talents of the people, as well as promote investments of foreign companies or investors. References: http://www.tutor2u.net/business/marketing/segmentation_why.asp http://www.nku.edu/~issues/internet_marketing/newwebpage1.html http://www2.accaglobal.com/documents/boston_consulting.pdf http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Ansoff-matrix.html

Kudo vs. Kudos

Kudo vs. Kudos Kudo vs. Kudos Kudo vs. Kudos By Maeve Maddox Some English speakers use the word kudo as the singular of kudos. What makes this usage problematic is the fact that kudos is already singular. Kudos is a Greek word meaning â€Å"glory, fame, renown.† It entered the language as student slang back when undergraduates were still required to study Greek at the university. Presumably the early users knew that it was a singular noun. The earliest OED citation for the use of the back-formation kudo is dated 1941. The OED marks the use of singular kudo as â€Å"erroneous,† but Merriam-Webster provides kudo with its own entry, taking care to defend its position in doing so: Some commentators hold that since kudos is a singular word it cannot be used as a plural and that the word kudo is impossible. But kudo does exist M-W’s assertion that kudo â€Å"does exist† makes me think of the comment made by Florence Foster Jenkins (1868-1944) about her excruciating efforts at singing opera: â€Å"People may say I cant sing, but no one can ever say I didnt sing. Inarguably, kudo is a word. Modern English is filled with words that began as errors only to become perfectly acceptable standard words. For example, our words newt and apron are the result of confusion over the indefinite article. What we now call â€Å"a newt† used to be â€Å"an ewt,† but the n of the article became attached to the noun. Conversely, what we call â€Å"an apron† started out as â€Å"a napron.† In Chaucer’s day, what we call a pea was called a pease. The plural was pesen. By the 1600s, pease was viewed as a word that, like sheep, could be either singular or plural. Before the end of the 17th century, pease had become pea in the singular and peas in the plural. That the older form persisted for a time is indicated by the nursery song â€Å"Pease Porridge Hot,† which dates from about 1765. M-W cites pea in its defense of singular kudo. Here are some examples of singular kudo on the web: That deserves a big KUDO! (agricultural site) Riverfront venue kudo deserved (Mankato Free Press) That deserves an even bigger KUDO. (product testimonial) How can I give a kudo to a great comment? (Myspace FAQ) In a way, kudo is like pea; both are back-formations. But the changes in pease and pesen occurred at a time when other number changes were taking place. English speakers once formed the plural of hose as hosen and tree as treen. I can think of only two nouns that have kept the -en plural: child/children, ox/oxen. We still use the plural brethren in a spiritual sense, but the regular plural of brother is brothers. It seems to me that kudo belongs with jocular back-formations like kempt from unkempt and gruntled from disgruntled. In these days of universal education and easy access to reference materials, using kudo seriously doesn’t seem any more acceptable than rendering the word as these writers have: Jane Hamsher deserves Kudo’s (political blogger) Director Brown reported the FB Dept deserves a BIG KUDO’s. (minutes of a public meeting) Kudo’s from clients (category on a technology site) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Regarding Re:What is Dative Case?List of 50 Compliments and Nice Things to Say!

Afflict vs. Inflict

Afflict vs. Inflict Afflict vs. Inflict Afflict vs. Inflict By Guest Author Although the words afflict and inflict have similar meanings and are often used in similar ways, they are far from interchangeable in modern English usage. The OED offers the following definitions of afflict: Afflict: 1. trans. To dash down, overthrow, cast down, deject, humble, in mind, body, or estate. 2. intr. To become downcast (with trouble). 3. trans. To distress with bodily or mental suffering; to trouble grievously, torment. refl. To distress oneself, grieve. In the case of afflict the third definition is the closest to the most common use of the word. The emphasis is on the physical or psychological distress caused by whatever the affliction may be. The word afflict is most commonly used when describing an illness or condition. For example: He was severely afflicted with gout. She suffers from a terrible affliction. These sentences demonstrate an accurate use of the word as they describe a form of physical distress. Inflict is defined by the OED as follows: Inflict: 1. trans. To lay on as a stroke, blow, or wound; to impose as something that must be suffered or endured; to cause to be borne. 2. To impose something unwelcome. (Often jocular). The emphasis of the word inflict is upon the imposition, the force and the unwelcome nature with which whatever is being inflicted upon a person is being inflicted. For example: A severe punishment was inflicted on the hooligan. The teacher inflicted a thirty minute detention upon the rowdy pupil. This is an accurate use of the word as it concentrates not on the punishment and the distress it causes but the force with which the punishment was administered. It is of little surprise that these two words are so regularly confused as the OED mentions the word affliction in a further definition of the word inflict as follows: With inverted construction: To afflict, assail, trouble (a person) with something painful or disagreeable. An additional note added to this strand of the definition explains that this is now a rare use of the word inflict. Traditionally the words were more interchangeable but in modern English they are clearly very separate entities. When in doubt ask yourself whether or not you are talking about something somebody is doing to another person – inflict or whether you are talking about something with which somebody is suffering and the distress it is causing them – afflict. This will enable you to use each of the words in the most commonly understood terms. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Incorrect Pronunciations That You Should AvoidPrecedent vs. PrecedenceConfusion of Subjective and Objective Pronouns

A Look At Technical Education In Bangladesh

A Look At Technical Education In Bangladesh The People’s Republic of Bangladesh is a country in South Asia which became independent in 1971 after a glorious nine months of liberation war with Pakistan Army who killed three millions Bangalees. Bangladesh literally means â€Å"The Country of Bengal†. Lying north of the Bay of Bengal, on land it borders India and Myanmar, and it is a close neighbor to China, Thailand, Nepal and Bhutan. Bangladesh is surrounded by India in The West, North and North-East and Myanmar to the South-East. It is situated between 20034†² and 26038†² North Latitude and 88001†² and 92041†² East Longitude. It has an area of 147,570 sq. km. and a population of nearly 140 million. It has a population density of 948 persons per sq. km., which is the highest in world. As the name â€Å"The Country of Bengal† suggests that Bangladesh is an ethnically homogeneous country. Among the different ethnic groups Bengalis 98  % and the remainder are mostly, Santhals, Chakmas, G aros, Biharis, Oraons and Mundas. Variations in Bengali culture and language do exist of course. The estimate of religious makeup from the 2001 census reported that the population was 89.58% Muslim, 9.34% Hindu, 0.62% Buddhist, 0.31% Christian and 0.15% Animist. With the highest density of population in the world and slow economic progress, the people of this country are trapped in the vicious cycle of poverty. Over 50% of the people who live below the poverty line are not able to provide for their basic needs and amenities. With 140 million people, Bangladesh is the eighth largest in the world in population. It is also one of the most densely populated countries and endowed with limited natural resources. Bangladesh has to rely, more than most developing countries, on its human resources for progress and prosperity. Educational Structure of Bangladesh The present education system of Bangladesh may be broadly divided into three major stages, viz. general education, madrasha educatio n and technical education. Here I am discussing about technical education in Bangladesh. Technical & Vocational Education For the students whose interests are not strictly academic may find technical-vocational programmes more interesting and more valuable for their future. Government tries to ensure that the course curriculum should be relevant to students’ interest and aspirations while at the same time it should address the needs of the job market. a. Primary level. There is no technical-vocational institution in primary level of education. Ebtedayee in the first level (Primary level) of madrasah education has no scope for technical-vocational education. Accordingly, technical – vocational education in Bangladesh is designed in three phases under two major levels of secondary and tertiary level of education. b. Secondary level. Vocational courses starts from secondary level. The certificate courses prepare skilled workers in different vocations starting from ninth g rade after completion of three years of schooling in secondary school. At this level the courses are diversified in different vocations spread over 1 to 2 years duration. Recently, 2 years duration vocational courses have been introduced at the higher secondary level in government managed vocational training institute (renamed as Technical School & College). Diploma courses prepare the diploma engineers at the polytechnic institutes. This course spread over 4 years duration after passing the secondary school certification examination. There is a technical education board called Bangladesh Technical Education Board (BTEB), which grants affiliation to the technical institutes. It conducts examinations of the students completing different courses in different vocational and technical education, and awards certificates to the successful candidates.

Brazil Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Brazil - Research Paper Example An uncontacted person or tribe refers to a person or a group of people who live by choice without having contact with connected civilizations of the world. Given the sheer size of Brazil, it comes as no surprise that it contains a very large and rather extensive ecosystem. A variety of habitats can be found throughout Brazil; indeed, there are many species of plants and animals that have not yet been documented and it is not uncommon for new species to be found on a regular basis. Scientists and researchers have estimated that the exact number of plant and animal species in Brazil could easily approach four million (Scaglia, 2010). Some of the animals that can be found throughout Brazil include, but are not limited to, pumas, the extremely rare bush dogs, slots, New World monkeys, and peccaries. Brazil is also home to the largest tropical forest in the world, the Amazon Rainforest, which covers an approximate 1.7 billion acres. The Amazon represents more than one half of the Earthâ⠂¬â„¢s remaining rainforests and is composed of the largest, most species-rich region of tropical rainforest found in the entire world. ... Uranium, petroleum, diamonds, limestone, platinum, and hydro electricity power make up just a short list of the many resources found in the country. The great amount of resources throughout Brazil has â€Å"helped a lot in the enhancement of financial status of the country (Baer, 2001).† Because of the presence of these many resources, not only has Brazil been able to secure a healthy economy, but they have also found themselves to be less dependent on foreign imports, which is something that many other countries in the world are unable to make a claim to. Similarly, Brazil is a country that prides itself on what it is able to export. Coffee, for example, which is not only the choice beverage of Brazilians and the national drink, but it is also one of the greatest exports of the country. Brazil is the number one supplier of coffee to other countries, sending out approximately 2,249,010 tons of coffee each year (Rohter, 2010). Other major Brazilian exports include ethanol, airc raft, automobiles, steel, iron ore, and electrical equipment. These exports, which are on high demand throughout the world, have also helped increase and keep steady the economy of Brazil. Brazil is a country rich with culture and the Carnival is no exception. The Carnival of Brazil is an event that takes place every year forty-six days before the Easter holiday and is thought to be the most important holiday in Brazil. The purpose of the carnival, which dates back to the pre-Christian pagan era, is to say goodbye to all of the bad things in one’s life as a preparation for Christ’s death and resurrection, which is also symbolized in these carnival celebrations (Guillermoprieto, 1990). The Carnival of Brazil is celebrated differently throughout all of the cities of Brazil,

Answer questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Answer questions - Essay Example There was a resultant concentration of wealth on the remaining populations and the remaining workers were paid five times more. It, therefore, had positive addition to civilization in Europe, hence, the reduced suppression of rights of workers and the concentration on health issues. It equally lead to adjustment on the distribution of land wealth in relation to the landowners. (Fredrick and Cartwright) The medieval communities longing for better lives made them live in brutality and horrible experiences from the acts of their superiors. The community lived in social tied out sets until they were torn by economic strife and the need for changes due to advancements and developments. The division of social class made the lords suppress the thoughts and notions of the peasants with a direct correlation with the tying with religion of which failure to conform would mean religious revolt by the peasants, hence, they had to humble themselves despite the hard times. De jure systems of justice ensured that fear and forceful obligation of the parties involved in conflicts ensued. The crude systems of justice in the middle ages were designed by the lords and powerful individuals in these societies to be able to meet their desired needs at the expense of others illegally and to maintain the status

Ismg 15 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ismg 15 - Essay Example To be able to overcome the fears of undesirable outcomes of speaking the truth, one needs moral courage. Moral courage is not exactly different from physical courage but varies in degree and occasions that present risk. Both present a risk possibility. By doing one’s nearest duty, McCain means people should place a focus on their personal obligations or responsibilities. People should keenly attend to the tasks that form their day, and perform with their best ability. The fact that McCain is a high profile politician adds an element to that idea. As a politician, he could be clarifying his duty as the people’s servant. His nearest duty is representing the peoples’ interests and grievances to the government. His political career best describes his undertaking of his nearest duty. McCain’s decision to decline the offer for freedom shows his moral courage because he was not willing to leave his comrades behind. Although he might have been aware of the consequences of his decision, he put aside his personal interests and chose to remain with his soldiers. The torture he opted to undergo suggests his physical courage. I approve of Kierkegaard’s father’s teaching technique. In as much as he often denied him permission to go out, the day he offered to take him on a walking tour he was so elaborate in describing details of what Kierkegaard did not know. He may have been waiting for that day to be the one to offer his son the deepest and derailed teaching, just as he did. Kierkegaard identifies more with Williams. Unlike the friend who does not want to choose, Kierkegaard had earlier made a decision to get married to Regine Olsen, whom he then broke up with just before writing the article. He knew firsthand the consequences of getting married and regretting it, or not getting married and regretting it because he had been in both worlds. The second excerpt is similar to Sartre’s theory of existential

The Life of Langston Hughes and his use of Religion, Rite of Passage, Research Paper

The Life of Langston Hughes and his use of Religion, Rite of Passage, and Family in his short stories - Research Paper Example Because of racism, he provided a remarkable authority on the black all through the US in the era referred to as the Harlem Renaissance. He was among the most inexhaustible and most recognized black poets of the renaissance. He was among the few that broke the barriers that several artists had achieved before. His articulation not only endorsed African American civilization, but also endeavoured to bring notice the predicament of African American anguishing from injustice and oppression (Baraceros, 118). In his book essay, salvation Hughes retells an experience concerning religion. He narrates that, he was salvaged from sin, when he was turning thirteen, but was not truly saved. This experience affected how he dealt with situations in religion in the future. The start of the story has a tone that excites the reader and makes them inquisitive and hopeful. However, eventually the tone disappoints the readers making them culpable and non-believers. A restoration that gains thrust for day s is a climatic flat line for Langston leaving him an agnostic. His aunt tells a curious Langston that, grand things will occur at revitalization, at the cathedral of his Auntie Reed. He is told that he will experience an incredible feeling within and will be delivered. Had this before from others and does not deem it right to question his aunt. He is hopeful that, at the revival, Jesus will call children. The children are called up, and he takes a pew on the bench waiting for Jesus to reveal himself. He waits for a long time, but Jesus never appears. There are only two children left on the bench and the other child decides he will meet Jesus to end things but a hopeful Langston waits (Baraceros, 234). Langston is disillusioned that Jesus did not come to assist him when all eyes were focused on him. This made to lie to his aunt that he had seen when he cried that night out of disappointment. He has heard several people older people discuss what happens when one goes to Jesus. This m ade to be hopeful, curios and excited, but at the end, the complete opposite is the outcome. These two extremes lead to Langston to be a non-believer. Another Hughes’ significant story is â€Å"Thank you Ma’m.† This story is about an elderly woman walking alone in the dark when suddenly a boy attempts to grab her purse. Nonetheless, during the effort, he loses his steadiness and slides on the pavement and the annoyed woman picks him up and teaches him a thorough lesson. She takes the boy to her home so that he could wash his face and have a pleasant e meal, before she hands him some money to buy blue suede shoes he has always wished for a long time. This story appears to be written around the 1930s when racism was a prodigious topic in the southern states, during those times numerous African Americans had problems looking for a job. During this period, many blacks had to fight for their freedom. From Rogers' perception, children went through a rough period as we ll during that era. He is dirty and frail and a street rogue. He depicts the life of many children of that time. Mrs Washington Jones, the elderly woman sympathises with Roger even though he tries to steal from her. She depicts a different side of the poor neighbourhood; a sturdy woman who depicts kindness to a stranger one would not expect her to be bothered. Many children in poor neighbourhoods had little to go home to,

First Generation Ethnic Minority Students with Multiple Higher Research Paper

First Generation Ethnic Minority Students with Multiple Higher Education Degrees - Research Paper Example The study also identified that having a familial support network, pride in becoming a sort of educational role model for others, the desire to gain a better household income through degree attainment, and substantially positive psychological coping and attitude contributed to constructive navigation of the education process. Through in-depth discussion with a first generation ethnic minority student, a variety of theoretical opportunities for family members of this group and institutional leaders to better engage and support first generation ethnic minority students was determined. Understanding the challenges and opportunities for first generation students has been a subject of interest to many researchers historically. The terminology of â€Å"first generation† is referring to any student that actively pursues a college/university education as the first individual within a family dynamic whose parents have not graduated from colleges or university institutions. As of 2012, approximately half of Alaska Natives, American Indians, African Americans, Hispanics and Latino doctorate holders belonged within family units where neither parent had been awarded a college degree (NSF, 2012). However, it is common that First Generation Ethnic Minority Students lack the knowledge that is required to make wise choices while completing their Masters and PhD Programs, which can pose serious consequences on their academic achievements. Ethnic minorities obtaining graduate degrees has been inadequately covered in research, and their challenges have lacked the necessary attention that is crucial in ensuring that they make wise choices during their academic profession. Research has pointed out that First Generation Ethnic Minority Students are inclined to face more challenges unless there is an intervention to streamline their decision making process. As the population of First Generation Ethnic Minority Students continues to increase, it is

Analytical Method Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analytical Method - Essay Example This formed the problem statement for the article thereby triggering the researchers to seek for the most appropriate tools and techniques for achieving their objectives. In which case, the researchers provide the theoretical background asserting that the chemical analysis of GSR can either focus on inorganic or organic components of the analyte therein. Intuitively, flame ionization detector (FID), thermal energy analysis (TEA), electron capture detector (ECD) and mass spectrometry (MS) together with Gas chromatography are important aspects which could be considered in this OGSR analysis. For the methods and materials, the use of MS/MS mode guided in explicit identification of target analyte. The researchers majorly focused on liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) coupled with GC; as evident in the use of LC–MS grade methanol used in the mobile phase and in Chromatographic analysis was performed on an Agilent 1200 Series HPLC system coupled with a hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The QTOF system was core to facilitating analysis in MS or MS/MS mode. The researchers carried out accurate mass measurement of the precursor ion, within MS spectra, mass measurement of the most specific product ion, and the retention time of the analyte compared with the retention time of the standard. Swabs were compared with home-modified tape lift supports covered with a PTFE layer to determine the better sampling technique. The modified tape lift provided better extraction recoveries and enabled the analysis of inorganic and organic G SR simultaneously. In Optimization of LC–QTOF in MS/MS mode parameters, different columns were tested to ensure optimization of the composition of the mobile phase through unequivocally separating and ionizing the analytes. In which case, chances for getting false positive and false negative results

First Generation Ethnic Minority Students with Multiple Higher Research Paper

First Generation Ethnic Minority Students with Multiple Higher Education Degrees - Research Paper Example The study also identified that having a familial support network, pride in becoming a sort of educational role model for others, the desire to gain a better household income through degree attainment, and substantially positive psychological coping and attitude contributed to constructive navigation of the education process. Through in-depth discussion with a first generation ethnic minority student, a variety of theoretical opportunities for family members of this group and institutional leaders to better engage and support first generation ethnic minority students was determined. Understanding the challenges and opportunities for first generation students has been a subject of interest to many researchers historically. The terminology of â€Å"first generation† is referring to any student that actively pursues a college/university education as the first individual within a family dynamic whose parents have not graduated from colleges or university institutions. As of 2012, approximately half of Alaska Natives, American Indians, African Americans, Hispanics and Latino doctorate holders belonged within family units where neither parent had been awarded a college degree (NSF, 2012). However, it is common that First Generation Ethnic Minority Students lack the knowledge that is required to make wise choices while completing their Masters and PhD Programs, which can pose serious consequences on their academic achievements. Ethnic minorities obtaining graduate degrees has been inadequately covered in research, and their challenges have lacked the necessary attention that is crucial in ensuring that they make wise choices during their academic profession. Research has pointed out that First Generation Ethnic Minority Students are inclined to face more challenges unless there is an intervention to streamline their decision making process. As the population of First Generation Ethnic Minority Students continues to increase, it is

Identify and fully describe the main developments Essay Example for Free

Identify and fully describe the main developments Essay 1. Identify and fully describe the main developments of Operating Systems, giving examples of their origins and use. Batch Operating Systems were an early operating system available, and were first introduced in the mid 50s. They were designed to make human manual work easier; humans were replicating identical jobs over and over again, hence in batch. A batch operating system keeps itself eventful; it does this by taking jobs from a batch queue, instead of waiting for people to submit jobs. The jobs are then processed one or more at a time under control of the operating system, however most jobs undertaken in this operating system would be single-task. These type of operating system were often left to work overnight, mainly because the jobs were batched the next job in the queue would be commenced as soon as the previous job had been completed, this way of processing would allow for a large work load to be automatically completed without the requirement to wait and tell the computer to do the next job. Real Time Operating Systems (RTOS) are often embedded, meaning a integral part of a system inside another device. They have very little user interface capability. Real time operating systems like their name implies, respond to an input immediately. Real time operating systems are capable of processing data so quickly that the results are available to influence the activity currently taking place. [Computer Science 5th Edition, CS French, Ashford Press Gosport, 1996] Real time operating systems guarantee a certain capability within a specified time constraint; these time constraints are usually very rigid. If the system does not conform to this time limit, the system ultimately fails. They are used for various purposes; a few of these are medical equipment, industrial control systems and car computers. Parallel Systems have more than one processor to carry out a single job. The systems often carry out one single job using the resources of both processors of the machine; however some systems will have a processor dedicated to a single task. These operations work in parallel (side by side) of one another. Distributed Systems act as an illusion to a user. A multiple number of nodes are set up on a network, to allow data access or device sharing. This allows for other users of different machines to access data on another machine on the network. For example at college a student logs on to the machine, the machine seems local to the user, the user observes the system as using its own local drives and devices. However these Drives and devices are setup on a client-server machine but appear to be local to the user. Time Sharing Operating Systems allow multi-tasking, the operating system shares a slice of the processor resources to designated programs and users logged on to the system. For example, it is not unusual for a home user to have a word processing package, internet browser and a multimedia package to be open at the same time. Microsoft Windows is a great example for allowing this. Personal Computer Operating Systems were brought about in the early 70s. However it wasnt until the 1980s that they became popular, and the focus of the operating system changed from the hardware aspect, to that of the user interface (how the user observes the operating system). Personal Computer Systems are simply operating systems that share the processors resources for single users tasks. The main concept behind personal computer operating systems is the user interface. The workings are important; however the main principal is that the user is entirely interactive with the system. These are perhaps the most difficult for designers to produce, as a very high level knowledge of user interface design is required. This is to allow users of any level to use the system comfortably. It allows for considerable power for a single user to run high-tech graphics and multimedia packages. These operating systems evolved in to very capable systems, allowing for heavy multi-tasking usage. Examples of Personal Computer operating systems are as follows: Microsoft Windows Linux Apple Macintosh MAC OS 2. Identify and fully describe the main purposes of an operating system. All components of the operating system are required to be covered, to clearly show an understanding of what each component does and how they fit into the overall system design. Process Management Process management is a way of tracking processes and managing them in such a way that there is enough processor resources to correctly function. Process is another word for a task that is to be performed by the computer. Along with a process is a set of information about the particular process. The information required to track these processes are stored in a data package called a Process Control Block (PCB). The process control block contains the following information about a process:   An identification number that uniquely identifies the process Owner ID An identification of the user/device who the process belongs to   Priority A number to represent its priority to the system   Status What its current state is. This is 1 of 3 states (Ready, Waiting, Running). Units of Processor Time Used   Resources waiting for for example paper for the printer.   Link to Another PCB   Registers the registers the process has contents in. Process ID 239845 Owner ID Chris. Oliver Priority 25 Status Waiting Units of Processor Time Used 264 Resource waiting for Disks [printer] Link to another PCB Next PCB in wait Queue Registers Contents of registers when process last stopped running An example of a PCB is shown below: this is for a print job A Processes state is diagrammatically shown below, this shows state transition and how it works. A process can be in one of five states; these five states are as follows: State Definition HOLD A processs state at the beginning, this is when the devices and memory allocation size is decided. READY this state is when the process has been allocated all the resources required and is ready for being operated on by the computer RUNNING This state is when the process is in the CPU WAITING This is when the process stops because of an input or output waiting to be completed. The process is removed from the processor and is allocated this state. It is given this state until the input or output is given the all clear. FINISHED This is when the process has been finished, and all the devices used by the process have been released ready for the next process. Deadlocks Deadlocks occur when a multiple number of processes fight for very little resources available from the processor. For example one process has been granted the allocation of the modem, however is waiting for a text file, but process two has the text file and is waiting for the modem. In this instance each process will not gather the resources required because they have been allocated to another process, this is where a deadlock occurs. Process Management in an operating system has the job to destroy one of the processes to allow for one of the processes to be put in the ready queue. Scheduling Scheduling is a method in the operating system that allows processes to enter the ready queue allowing them to then take execution. The strategies used to take these processes and allow them to be ready for execution are as follows:   Process the maximum amount of jobs.   Sharing out processing time equally to users   Providing acceptable response times, this is in the form of not running intensive programs while users are logged on to the system. Keeping devices as busy as possible.   Attempting to gradually freeing up of processes, instead of crashing.   Avoid Deadlocking Scheduling is comprised of three sections: 1 Long Term Scheduling this is where processes are batched together, when the resources and space are free the process is then executed. This type of scheduling is used for jobs like heavy overnight print jobs. 2 Mid-Term Scheduling this is where a decision is made as to whether the processor is to busy for the amount of processes attempting to use it, the decision can be then fixed by terminating processes. When the system is free again the process can be re-executed. 3 Short Term Scheduling is a where the next process is selected from the ready queue; it uses algorithms to do this. Shortest burst time being the time spent running before the process will have to wait before an input or output operation. Shortest remaining time is the processes that have very little time left; this inevitably allows space for another process to execute. Priority scheduling a control that allow special circumstance processes to execute through the system quickly. Round robin limits the time a process is allowed to run before it is removed, it is then placed back in the ready queue. Memory Management Memory is an area in which data and instructions are stored. These operations must be managed by an operating system in order for the system to be stable and to run fluently. Memory management within an operating system must ensure that a process has enough memory to run, ensuring it does not go in to another processes slot as this causes corruption. This management is a way of protecting memory from becoming unstable. Memory management is also responsible for using the computers other memory sources effectively, to ensure programs run smoothly and effectively. This is handled by using virtual memory; using the hard disc drive as a temporary memory source for processes and data. This can benefit the user in various ways: The user is not rigidly restricted to space available. Using a large virtual memory space provides convenience for instances where large programs etc. are required to be stored in memory. Users are using less physical memory; therefore the system can handle more users on the system. High Speed Cache is a fast memory storage; cache predicts the data that the CPU may need next, it then retrieves it from RAM and places it in to the high speed cache, this speeds up system performance, as cache is a lot faster than RAM is in providing for the processor. The operating systems task is to control an even flow of the processes and decide where they should go practically, moving processes to the best location as the scheduler asks it to do so. This scheduler knows what process is next in line therefore can tell memory it is next and to move it to a suitable location for it to be quickly accessed. Paging Paging is a method used in operating systems to make a programs memory non-contiguous, in simple terms; allowing a program to be allocated to any memory location available. This is used when a bulk of data is bigger than the memory allocation it has been given; it firstly fills the memory allocation provided, and then stores the rest of the data in any space available in memory. This method of splitting the data is known as Fragmentation. This decreases system performance. Defragmentation To enhance the performance of the memory of a secondary storage medium, the operating system runs an operation called Defragmentation. Defragmentation is a process that sorts data in to a contiguous sequence. If a non-contiguous set of data is found, it will be relocated and stored as a whole. The image above is an illustration to show pictorially how a storage device could look in a data structure. As you can see fragmented files are scattered. If this data was attempted to be retrieved it would be slower feedback to the user as the data has been fragmented and would have to be found first. If data is to be found quickly and retrieved without a problem, the diagram below shows how a data structure should pictorially look. The image shows a contiguous data structure, with no fragmented files. This is the idea state for a system to be operated under. File and Disk Management TALK ABOUT HOW MEMORY IS STORED i. e. CONTIGIOUS Blocks of data are assigned in a complete row, using this method the files are simple to access. The space must be large enough to store all the data Files may become larger, therefore the space may be too small in the future, then it will need relocating (moved) This then causes fragmentation of the storage device. , NON CONTIGIOUS Files are recognised by operating systems and worked upon by using file extensions. A file consist of two parts, one being the unique name to the user, second being the file extension related to the program that runs that type of file. The operating system recognises exactly which program to open when the file is run. The way that files and data are managed, is critical to the performance of the computer and the security of the data. File management within an operating system provides a logical way for the user to observe there data, instead of having the complication of the physical implementation. Operating systems main job in this area is to ensure that data is stored and relocated correctly, as well as having the responsibility to process files, find space to store them, and to retrieve this data at any time. For example a . PDF file when run will be recognised by the operating system to be open in Adobe Acrobat Reader, providing the program is installed on the computer. An operating system can perform several different tasks towards files, they are as follows: Operation/Task Function Create finding space for it on storage medium, a new record made in directory Write Finds the file from directory and adds data to it. Read Finds the file then puts it in to memory and a read pointer is used to track where the next read place is to take place. In most operating systems however, a write pointer is held at this point, in-case the user intends to write to the file while reading Delete finds the file, then frees all space given to it, this is then erased from the computer Files are a collection of saved information that is stored on a type of storage medium for later retrieval. File attributes are the information related to the file, just like we have information related to ourselves, i. e. telephone number and home address. A files attributes are vital in order for the operating system to create a file structure system, it does this by using the attributes to sort the files in to some kind of order. For computer data files there are a set of minimum attributes related to them, they are as follows: Attribute Name Role Name an identifier to the user, in the form of a string of characters Type the type of file it is, this is important as different operating systems handle different types of files differently. Location Information held about where the file is stored, usually in the form of a path to it. e. g. C:\Documents and Settings\Chris\Assignment. doc. Size The size of the file (in bytes) e. g. 270kb. Protection Permissions to who can access the file. I. e. Read Only Date when the file was created, modified or accessed. Author the person the file was created and saved by. Directories Directories are a hierarchical way of separating these files; directories simply make it simpler for users to relocate the file at another time. The root is the top directory of a file system; the root is determined by the operating system. The root directory is usually the bootable device on a home computer system. Commonly C: Paths are a list of directories that the operating system goes through to find a run able file. For example: C:\windows\cdplayer. exe The operating system will go in to the root and then in to the directory Windows the file named cdplayer. exe will then be located and executed. Tree Structure are of a hierarchical nature, therefore the top level is the root of the directory and every other sub directory from which all other directories stem off. A Backslash is used to separate and indicate directories within directories (sub directories) Directories allow a method for the operating system to easy locate files. Volumes are a fixed amount of storage space allocated on a device. If a hard disc drive has two partitions set up, then it is said to have two volumes because it has two separate fixed storage spaces. Formatting a device in turn means to prepare it for read and write access. It does this by wiping all drive information that has been pre-set, it then tests each sector of the disc to ensure they are reliable enough for read and writing in and out of. File Allocation Techniques FAT (File Allocation Table) 32. Located on the storage device, basically holds the relevant information in a table, to find the data on the disk. its security does not measure up to that of NTFS and its filename size constraint is poor to that of NTFS. Searches from top to bottom when looking for a file. Contains the first block of each file on the disk, Requires a tremendous amount of space NTFS (New Technology File System) Used in Windows NT based operating systems Uses a similar table to that of FAT32 to keep track of file locations Looks at directory structure from the side to help speed up the location of files Uses Link Listed Allocation. Linked allocation creates inked lists using disk sectors as nodes. For example, if the sector size is 512 bytes, and it takes a 32 bit number to represent the next block address, then only 508 bytes can be used to store data (the other 4 bytes are used to locate the next file sector). This approach eliminates external fragmentation (since even the smallest block can now be used). Some problems with this approach are that seeking within a file is now difficult. For example, if were interested in the last 100 bytes of a 100mb file, we need to traverse all the sectors of the file (follow links) to get to the last 100 bytes. Another major issue is that we need to do a disk seek with every disk sector (unless disk sectors are contiguous). And yet another issue with this is that storing pointers on every disk sector uses up a lot of disk space. UNIX Used I-Nodes an indexed file allocation method. Its fast for small blocks of data and can accommodate extremely large volumes of data RAM Disk RAM disks are a temporary storage solution, data cannot be permanently saved, and data is lost on any type of system shut off. I. e. system reboots. A Random Access Memory disk is a segment of the main memory that is left for extra storage if required. This is otherwise known as a Virtual Drive. The main use for this area is that of performing operations to files, this is a better way of performing operations as the rate at which they can be performed on are that much higher than that of a physical drive. Size constraints are a major problem with RAM disks, as they are limited to that only of the RAM contained in the machine. For example in modern home computer systems 256mb of RAM is contained, therefore only 256megabyte of RAM disc can be used. 256mb in todays computing is very little in comparison to what users require. OS Services files, copy, delete, rename, view, find, backup Directories create, rename, list, delete Programming, Open, close, read, write, seek File allocation methods, FAT 32, NTFS, UNIX, Disk caching RAM disk Defragmentation I/O System Management DMA DMA takes control of the system by imitating the processor; it does this to enable itself to transfer data to and from the memory using the system bus. Buffering is required primarily because of the slow nature of I/O Device function. It is a way of smoothing out an I/O operation, Virtual Segmentation each process is divided in to slices (segments) non-resident Caching and Spooling of Input and output devices Drivers System Components ( CPU, RAM, System Bus, Local Buses, Device Controllers, Control Registers, Devices). IO response System (polling, interrupts, I/O, DMA Kernal Layers, Purpose, Device, Drivers, System calls Device Management Device management controls hardware resources; this includes the control over selection and operation of the devices used for input, output or storage. 2. Select an appropriate type of operating system for the following ICT needs, giving the choice of current operating systems [trade names]: a) Local council office department in charge of the collection, and distribution of council tax. b) A national car-rental agency, whose main computing centre is located in Sheffield, through which all of the daily transactions for the business are conducted. c) An electro-plating circuit board manufactures. d) A travelling company representative, who uses technology to keep in touch with his office. 3. Research and identify the different operating systems currently available for desktop computers. From your research and investigations of these operating systems you must critically evaluate them. This evaluation should clearly demonstrate your understanding of the differences found including and potential disadvantages. Bibliography http://www. cse. lehigh. edu/~glennb/um/book/c10os. htm http://dragon. acadiau. ca/~dbenoit/3713/slides/pdf/Week2. 1_History. pdf http://cne. gmu. edu/itcore/processes/Time. html http://www. netnam. vn/unescocourse/os/35. htm#3. 5. 3%20Virtual%20memory%20concept http://www. cs. aue. auc. dk/~akbar/ospdfiles/wschap7. PDF Books [Computer Science 5th Edition, CS French, Ashford Press Gosport, 1996].

Tourism Development In India

Tourism Development In India Part 1: Tourism Development Before going deep into assignment there are some terms which we have to take into consideration. Terms are explained below- Tourism Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for more than twenty-four (24) hours and not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited. Tourist- Tourist is person who travels from his residential place to non-residential place for pleasure, business or personal reasons, the duration of the stay is not more than six month at non residential place of the traveler. What is rational development? Rational development usually relates to the circumstances that causes development to any destination or place. (Badjatia, 2008) Chosen destination? As per the expectation of the assignment India has been chosen as a destination for the same. Rational for tourism development in India Socio-economic development of areas Tourism conferred considerable socio-economic benefits to the: Community thereby uplifting the quality of life. It can further foster development even in areas where other economic activities would be difficult to sustain. Increasing employment opportunities Tourism industry generates employment directly and indirectly, for almost 13-14 million people. Employment opportunities should be at least double of the present level before the turn of the century. Developing domestic tourism especially for the budget category Domestic tourists form the bulk of world tourist traffic. In India also, facilities for domestic tourists will be improved and expanded particularly the budget category so as to ensure an affordable holiday for them effects of tourism on culture and the environment in India. Development of international tourism and optimization of foreign exchange earnings. International tourism contributes substantially to foreign exchange earnings and keeping in view the countrys requirements, tourism wail be so developed that foreign exchange earnings increase from Rs. 2440 crores to Rs. 10,000 crores by the end of the century (US $813 to 3,333 million @ Rs.30 per US S). Diversification of the tourism product While retaining the traditional image of cultural tourism that India enjoys, diversification of the tourism product would continue, particularly the field of leisure, adventure, convention and incentive tourism, thereby responding to the changing consumer needs. Increase in Indias share in world tourism Presently the foreign tourist arrivals in India constitute only about 0.4 per cent of the total foreign tourists movement all over the world. One of the objectives of the action plan would be to increase Indias share to 1 per cent within the next five years (unesdoc.unesco.org) Preservation of national heritage and environment Tourism would be developed in a manner that our cultural expression and heritage are presented in all its manifestations including support to arts and crafts. Preservation and enrichment of environment should also form an integral part of tourism development. Stakeholders Person, group, or organization that has direct or indirect stake in an organization because it can affect or be affected by the organizations actions, objectives, and policies. Key stakeholders in a business organization include creditors, customers, directors, employees, government (and its agencies), owners (shareholders), suppliers, unions, and the community from which the business draws its resources.( www.businessdictionary.com) Stakeholders in India Creditors Tourists Tourism organizations Government organizations Foreign currency Investors Stakeholders benefiting from tourism in India Getting capital to invest in development of tourist destination. Foreign currency In the country increases resulting into direct development. Generation of employment Better life style of the people in the home country. UNWTO technical manual: Collection of Tourism Expenditure Statistics (PDF). World Tourism Organization. 1995. p. 14. Badjatia, K. (2008). The Rational Development (2 ed.). Indore: A.K. Publishers. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001216/121600eo.pdf http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/stakeholder.html

Essay on the Defense of Walls in Mending Wall :: Mending Wall Essays

Opposing the Unthinking Defense of Walls in Mending Wall The speaker in "Mending Wall" questions his neighbor's stolid assumption that "good fences make good neighbors." Perhaps, what he objects to is not so much the sentiment itself as the unwillingness or inability of the other to think for himself, to "go beyond his father's saying." Just so; we must try to get beyond the apophthegm-like opening line of "Mending Wall," testing carefully for gradations of tone as we proceed. Is it the proverb-like authority of "something there is . . . " that makes it so natural to equate "something" with the speaker? Once this equation has been made, the reader joins the speaker in sympathizing with this mysterious "something" and hence in opposing the neighbor's unthinking defense of walls. Frost rings subtly drastic changes on the sound of a phrase like "good fences make good neighbors." By the time the poem ends, this line has acquired some of the pat stupidity of a slogan. Similar turns of the screw affect the opening line, when to it is added the darker phrase "that wants it down" and again when the speaker refuses to name the antiwall "something." "Elves" is the closest he gets, yet "It's not elves exactly, and I'd rather / He said it for himself." Elves may mean not willowy things out of Tolkien but darker forces of the wood, for the next image is one of darkness. The neighbor is viewed as subtly menacing, "an old-stone savage armed." Yet this man has been the one to defend boundaries. The apparently relaxed and leisurely pace of the poem has made us lower our own boundaries and forget who is on what side. At any rate, although the speaker's ironic evasiveness undermines any confident interpretation, Poirier is surely right when he makes the following point: . . . .it is not the neighbor . . . a man who can only dully repeat "good fences make good neighbors"-- . . .it is not he who initiates the fence-making. Rather it is the far more spirited, lively, and "mischievous" speaker of the poem. While admitting that they do not need the wall, it is he who each year "lets my neighbor know beyond the hill" that it is time to do the job anyway, and who will go out alone to fill the gaps made in the wall by hunters.

swazi :: essays papers

swazi The Swazi of Swaziland Introduction Swazi’s are said to belong to the Nguni people who lived in central Africa and migrated to southern Africa. They speak the Siswati language , a language earlier spoken by the Nguni group of the Bantu family. They seem to have settle in Swaziland around five hundred years ago. They were then ruled by the British from the mid 19th century to mid 20th century. Swaziland is a monarchy and is ruled by King Mswati III. Social Organization The social organization in the Swazi’s is like any other African tribe. The homestead is the economic and domestic unit of the family. It is headed by the Umnumza or headman who is in charge of the family which includes his wives and children. Sons will bring there wives to the homestead and setup home within it while the daughters move to their in-laws. The occupants who reside in the homestead can also be distant relatives or non dependents. Therefore the number of people for whom the headman is responsible economically ,legally and by ritual may vary according his status and wealth. A wealthy headman may have many wives therefore he has a large number of people he is responsible for. The headman usually would subdivide the large homestead in order to gain access to larger tracts of cultivable land or divide quarrelsome wives . The homestead is planned according to the relationships between its inhabitants . Usually in the center of the homestead is the cattle pen and grain storage units, which are underground flask shaped pits. Women are not allowed access to theses places. The living quarters are grouped in a semicircle with the indlunkuku ( great hut) which is home to the most important woman in the homestead , the mother of the headman. If she is dead then a substitute mother is appointed. On the sides are the quarters of the wives ,each with her own sleeping ,cooking and storage huts and enclosed with a reed fence for protection against `wind . The ranking of wives is not rigid but it depends on the headman and his preference of wives. the clear demarkation of the wives huts and the fact that each of them own their own garden land and cattle does not erase the fact that the headman’s mother’s house is supreme.

Ethics of end of life care Essay

Ethics often play a big role in end of life care in terminally ill people, such as the case of Hassan Rasouli, a man who was left with brain damage following surgery. Doctors determined that the man had no quality of life and that they had intended to remove him from life support measures that were necessary to keep him alive. His family quickly objected stating that they wanted him to remain on life support as in there Muslim religion it was imperative to preserve life. Doctors insisted that he should be removed, as there were no signs of life without artificial means, that the facial movements his family thought to be Mr. Rasouli smiling at them were just involuntary movements. The doctors feel that keeping the man on life support is inhumane verses letting him pass peacefully. The doctors have taken the case to the courts. This is an issues that is very common in todays times, with multiple factors playing a part from old age to terminal diseases, many people enact advance directives requarding their end of life care removing the debate of what their wishes were. The courts sided with the family and allowed the man to remain on artificial life support. An evaluation by a neurologist with the University of Western Ontario’s Brain and Mind Institute, found that Mr. Rasouli did in fact have some neurological function and therefor he was declared minimally conscious and not in a persistive vegetative state, however there is not a large difference in the two.

A Formal Analysis of Statue of Liberty by Andy Warhol

A Formal Analysis of Statue of Liberty by Andy Warhol Andy Warhol created his painting Statue of Liberty in 1962. The painting’s subject is, obviously, the Statue of Liberty, repeated twelve times in a 4 by 3 matrix. The painting belongs to the Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; however it is being auctioned on November 14th at Christie’s in New York. It is rather large at 80 by 61 inches. To be able to see the entirety of the painting, one must stand back several feet. The image that appears twelve times in the painting is the Statue of Liberty facing forward from her legs up.One can see most of the statue, including the torch, and the horizon behind her. The painting is composed mostly of a cool blue. In addition to the blue, a vibrant red is included, creating a contrast in the painting. Strangely enough, the painting is not centered, but rather aligned to the right, leaving a lot of unused space on the left. The repetition of the statue forms a harmony of sorts, but the individual coloring creates a small separation. The original image of the statue appears that it was not painted, though it contrast between the ocean and the sky makes it seem like the picture might have been altered.The sky in the background matches the color of the linen. The image shows the statue dead center with the ocean filling two thirds of it and the sky filling the other third. In a majority of the rectangles there is a splotch of darker blue than what is used on the statue that covers the statue’s torch and torch, keeping one from seeing everything completely. Only two of the images include red paint, excluding the images on the far right that are cut off. The grid of the images creates six or seven implied lines.There is also an implied line from the bottom of the left side of the statue to the tip of the torch. There is a line created along the horizon of the dark ocean and the bland sky. There are contrasted lines within the ocean to show wave s or motion using the linen as the background color. The face of the statue varies in visibility between each square. It varies between visible, somewhat visible, and not visible between the images. The appearance changes from square to square. Together, the squares show harmony since the statue is fixed in place. The variation occurs with the splotch on the statue’s face.It seems to move, or disappear, from the top left to the bottom right square, giving the painting its variation. The splotch that covers Lady Liberty’s face can possibly emphasize the face or the torch she holds. The important matter is possibly the face that she is, or isn’t, covered, though it is in an inconsistent way to induce speculation of the artwork. Symmetry has been used to show uniformity or order. Since the painting is aligned to the right it doesn’t show uniformity in that aspect. The image, on the other hand, is very uniform. The entirety of the painting expresses almost an ordered chaos.The squares show strange, jagged shapes that are indistinguishable across the painting. Each one of them is much lighter than the color in the square. The shapes are presented as shadows, and from square to square it seems as though they are moving as they would through a film strip. Even though the Statue of Liberty is enormous, it's seems to be shrunken in this artwork. The shrunken statue is then multiplied by twelve and fluidly placed on the linen canvas. The movement of the blue splotch and the white shadow overlay gives a sort of flow across the piece.The repetition of the image in the squares could possible represent the variety of ways that America is perceived by people. The variation of color and the distortion of the face/torch by the blue splotch could represent the different experiences of people in the country. The blank area on the left of the piece depicts the abundance of opportunity in America. The repetition of the same picture, on the other hand, c ould show a generic form of America, but with the variation of color could represent that it could differ with some very small details. The painting is somewhat ambiguous in this way, but is great nonetheless.

Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism

Frenand Braudel’s â€Å"Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism† offers very sharp insight on the birth and the growth of capitalism in the history of material civilization. His theory has been used as a theoretical tool explaining the globalization of modern capitalism. Yet, the value of his book is more than its utility in globalization studies. In this book, he criticizes the European point of view on the history of material civilization and extends his scope to non-European economy.Especially, he portrays economic history as a spontaneous, slowing evolution with long term equilibriums and disequilibriums, ignoring the history of economics as the successive transitions of big events such as the stages of slavery, feudalism, and capitalism. He thinks that the preindustrial economy is also characterized by the coexistence of inflexibility, inertia and slow motion. www. rpi. edu/~kime2/ehtm/myissues/braudel. htm Braudel notes that the exchanges from Europe across Siberia to China â€Å"formed a system of interdependence.† Moreover, â€Å"at the beginning of the sixteenth century, Russia's principal foreign market was Turkey† which Braudel also classifies as a separate â€Å"world-economy† â€Å"reminiscent of Russia. † Braudel terms the Turkish economy â€Å"a fortress,† but also a â€Å"source of wealth† and a â€Å"crossroads of trade, providing the Turkish Empire with the lifeblood that made it mighty. † The Turkish economy was not any more isolated from the rest of the world than the Russian economy: A long French report on the Levant trade confirms this impression: â€Å"[French] ships carry more goods to Constantinople than to all other ports in the Levant.The surplus funds are transferred to other ports by means of bills of exchange which the French merchants of Smyrna, Aleppo and [Port] Said provide for the Pashas. † Braudel then asserts that European trade in the Turkis h empire was minimal and â€Å"merely passed quickly through [because] money, the sinews of western trade, usually only made fleeting appearances in the Turkish Empire†: as part went to the sultan's treasury, part oiled the wheels of top-level trade, and â€Å"the rest drained away in massive quantities to the Indian Ocean.† In that case, Braudel should have asked what intermediary role the Turkish economy played between Europe and India. Then too, Braudel notes that caravan routes ran from Gibraltar to India and China â€Å"the whole movement-in-space which made up the Ottoman economy,† which â€Å"owed its suppleness and vigour to the tireless convoys which converged from every direction. † Far from having a self-contained â€Å"fortress† economy, then, the Ottoman empire drew its lifeblood from being a crossroads between other economies, none of which were independent of each other.Of course, the Turks tried to maintain their power, derive maxim um benefits from their intermediary position, and bar others from sharing in it as best they could. Turkish merchants, not content with their intermediary role at home, also â€Å"invaded Venice, Ferrara, Ancona, even Pesaro, Naples and the fairs of the Mezzogiorno† in Italy and â€Å"were soon found all over Europe, in Leipzig fairs, using the credit facilities provided by Amsterdam, and even in Russia or indeed Siberia as we have already seen. † The Turkish empire hardly sounds like a dosed economyBraudel calls Asia the â€Å"greatest of all world-economies,† which â€Å"taken as a whole, consisted of three gigantic world-economies,† Islam, India, and China. He even allows that â€Å"between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries, it is perhaps permissible to talk of a single world-economy embracing all three. † Toward the end of this period he observes that the center of this single economy became stabilized in the East Indies (beyond the bounda ries of these three economies) in a network of maritime traffic comparable to that of the Mediterranean or the Atlantic coasts of Europe.Of India he writes that for centuries it had been â€Å"subject to a money economy, partly through her links with the Mediterranean world. † Gold and silver were â€Å"the indispensable mechanisms which made the whole great machine function, from its peasant base to the summit of society and the business world. † Braudel suggests that the foundation of Europe's trade with India was the low wages of the â€Å"foreign proletariat† there, which produced the cheap exports exchanged for the inflow of precious metals to India.As â€Å"a historian of the Mediterranean,† Braudel declares himself â€Å"astonished,† to find that Red Sea trade in the late eighteenth century was still the same â€Å"vital channel† in the outflow of Spanish-American silver to India and beyond as in the sixteenth century. He might have n oted how American silver reached this economy not only via the Red Sea and the Levant, but also around the South African cape, and with the Manila galleons. Braudel did observe that the â€Å"influx of precious metal was vital to the movements of the most active sector of the Indian, and no doubt Chinese economy.† According to one historian, the â€Å"series of interconnected regional markets dispersed and overlapping around the globe† were really a â€Å"world market for silver. † Perhaps as much Spanish-American silver crossed the Pacific to Asia, where it competed with Japanese silver, as crossed the Atlantic. Like exchanges elsewhere, trade in the Far East was based on goods, precious metals and credit instruments. European merchants could apply to the moneylenders in Japan or in India . . . and to every local source of precious metals afforded them by the Far East trade.Thus they used Chinese gold . . . silver from Japanese mines . . . Japanese gold coins . . . Japanese copper exports . . . gold produced in Sumatra and Malacca . . . [and] the gold and silver coins which the Levant trade continued to pour into Arabia (especially Mocha), Persia and north-west India. . . . [The Dutch East India Company] even made use of the silver which the Acapulco galleon regularly brought to Manila. (Dennis O. Flynn, 1991). Temporary shortages of silver had an impact on Asia that may have helped bring down China's Ming dynasty.Prior to 1630, the inflow of silver from Spanish America and Japan promoted the monetization of the Chinese economy. The abrupt decline in silver production during the world recession after 1630 caused economic turmoil and bankrupted the Ming government, making it an easier prey to the Manchus in 1644. One scholar argues that it was no coincidence that the British monarchy was overthrown in 1640, and the Turkish government nearly fell at about the same time. (Jack A. Goldstone, 1991) Moreover, Braudel also finds a de facto globa l if not a world economy beyond the monetary sphere.â€Å"Long-term control of the European world-economy evidently called for the capture of its long-distance trade, and therefore of American and Asian products. † Braudel wrote: Who could fail to be surprised that wheat grown at the Cape, in South Africa, was shipped to Amsterdam? . . . Or that sugar from China, Bengal, sometimes Siam, and, after 1637, Java, was alternately in demand or out of it in Amsterdam, depending on whether the price could compete in Europe with that of sugar from Brazil or the West Indies? When the market in the mother country was closed, sugar from the warehouses in Batavia was offered for sale in Persia, Surat, or Japan.Nothing better demonstrates how Holland in the Golden Age was already living on a world scale, engaged in a process of constant partition and exploitation of the globe. . . . One world-economy (Asia) . . . [and] another (Europe) . . . were constantly acting on one another, like two unequally laden trays on a scale: it only took an extra weight on one side to throw the whole construction out of balance. Few historians have tried to determine whether and how cycles coincided across the supposed boundaries of these economies, yet such evidence could reveal much about whether they formed a single world economy.Braudel himself offers only a few indications of simultaneity across the boundaries of his world-economies. He devotes a special section to conjunctures, considers fifty-year cycles, as well as others that are twice as long and more; of these he writes â€Å"four successive secular cycles can be identified, as far as Europe is concerned. † On the one hand Braudel claims that â€Å"the world-economy is the greatest possible vibrating surface. . . . It is the world-economy at all events which creates the uniformity of prices over a huge area, as an arterial system distributes blood throughout a living organism.† Yet, on the other hand, Braudel ob serves that â€Å"the influence of the world-economy centered in Europe must very soon have exceeded even the most ambitious frontiers ever attributed to it. . . . The really curious thing is that the rhythms of the European conjuncture transcend the strict boundaries of their own world-economy. † Furthermore, â€Å"Prices in Muscovy, in so far as they are known, lined up with those of the West in the sixteenth century, probably by the intermediary of American bullion, which here as elsewhere acted as a ‘transmission belt'.† Similarly, Ottoman prices followed the European pattern for the same reasons. Braudel then demonstrated how such exchange transcended the economic boundaries he describes since the system extends throughout the global economy. Indeed, he observes â€Å"knock-on effects† as far away as Macao, even beyond the Manila galleon route. He also remarks that â€Å"historians (Wallerstein included) have tended to underestimate this type of exch ange. † Yet, Braudel underestimates this exchange as well.After reproducing a graph of the yearly fluctuations of Russia's exports and its wade balance between 1742 and 1785, he only observes â€Å"two short lived drops in the [trade balance] surplus, in 1772 and 1782, probably as a result of arms purchases. † The graph also shows a third big drop in 1762-63. All three coincide with a sharp drop on the graph of Russian exports, whatever may have happened to imports of arms or anything else. These three short periods occurred in Russia in the same years as three world economic recessions, which Braudel discusses at some length in another chapter without making the connection.In still another chapter, Braudel reproduces a graph of Britain's trade balance with its North American colonies between 1745 and 1776 that shows sharp declines in British imports, and lesser declines of exports in the same years, 1761-63 and 1772-73. But again Braudel does not look for connections b etween these recessions. This omission is curious since about the first of these recessions he writes that â€Å"with the currency shortage, the crisis spread, leaving a trail of bankruptcies; it reached not only Amsterdam but Berlin, Hamburg, Altona, Bremen, Leipzig, Stockholm and hit hard in London.† Regarding the next recession Braudel observes catastrophic harvests in all of Europe in 1771-72 and famine conditions in Norway and Germany. According to Braudel â€Å"capitalism did not wait for the sixteenth century to make its appearance. We may therefore agree with Marx, who wrote (though he later went back on this) that European capitalism – indeed he even says capitalist production – began in thirteenth-century Italy. . . . I do not share Immanuel Wallerstein's fascination with the sixteenth century† as the time the world capitalist system emerged in Europe.Braudel is â€Å"inclined to see the European world-economy as having taken shape very early o n. † Indeed he observes â€Å"European expansion from the eleventh century† when it was â€Å"suddenly covered with towns – more than 3,000 in Germany alone. † â€Å"This age marked Europe's true Renaissance. † Furthermore, â€Å"the merchant cities of the Middle Ages all strained to make profits and were shaped by the strain. † Braudel concludes that â€Å"contemporary capitalism has invented nothing. . . . By at least the twelfth century . . . everything seems to have been there in embryo . . .bills of exchange, credit, minted coins, banks, forward selling, public finance, loans, capitalism, colonialism – as well as social disturbances, a sophisticated labour force, class struggles, social oppression, political atrocities. † Braudel also doubts that capitalism was invented in twelfth- or thirteenth-century Venice. â€Å"Genoa seems always to have been, in every age, the capitalist dry par excellence. † Several other Ita lian cities also had capitalist activities earlier than Venice. In all of them, â€Å"money was constantly being invested and reinvested,† and â€Å"ships were capitalist enterprises virtually from the start.† He further notes that â€Å"It is tempting too to give Antwerp the credit for the first steps in industrial capitalism, which was dearly developing here and in other thriving towns of the Low Countries† in the sixteenth century. Moreover, the term â€Å"capitalism† also seems to apply at the most macro-economic level, for â€Å"if today's cycles do in fact have some resemblance to those of the past . . . there is certain continuity between ancient regime and modern economies: rules similar to those governing our present experience may have operated in the past. â€Å"Braudel, however, also cast doubt on the idea that capitalism was invented in Western Europe and then exported to Asia: Everywhere from Egypt to Japan, we shall find genuine capitalis ts, wholesalers, rentiers of trade, and their thousands of auxiliaries, commission agents, brokers, money-changers, and bankers. As for the techniques, possibilities or guarantees of exchange, any of these groups of merchants would stand comparisons with its western equivalents. Braudel avers that â€Å"the rest of the world . . . went through economic experiences resembling those of Europe.† On the other hand, referring to North and West Africa before the Europeans arrived, he writes that â€Å"once more we can observe the profound identity of action between Islam's imperialism and that of the West. † Braudel wants to â€Å"challenge the traditional image† that describes Asiatic traders as â€Å"high-class peddlars. † Moreover, after Braudel writes of Asians taking turns in a monotonous repetition for a thousand years of shifts in economic dominance, he concludes that: â€Å"For all the changes, however, history followed essentially the same course. â⠂¬  If we asked what changes in or after 1500 as per Wallerstein, the answer would be not much.Braudel quotes a contemporary French sea captain writing from the Ganges River in India: â€Å"The high quality of merchandise made here . . . attracts and always will attract a great number of traders who send vessels to every part of the Indies from the Red Sea to China. Here one can see the assembly of nations of Europe and Asia . . . reach perfect agreement or perfect disunity, depending on the self-interest which alone is their guide. † No Europeans, including their Portuguese vanguard, added anything of their own, only the money they derived from the conquest of America.A standard work on Asian trade notes that â€Å"the Portuguese colonial regime, then, did not introduce a single new element into the commerce of southern Asia. . . . The Portuguese colonial regime, built upon war, coercion, and violence, did not at any point signify a stage of ‘higher development' econ omically for Asian trade. The traditional commercial structure continued to exist. † Even Wallerstein recognizes â€Å"an uncomfortable blurring of the distinctiveness of the patterns of the European medieval and modern world†: Many of these [previous] historical systems had what we might call proto-capitalist elements.That is, there often was extensive commodity production. There existed producers and traders who sought profit. There was investment of capital. There was wage-labor. There was Weltanschauungen consonant with capitalism. . . . â€Å"Proto-capitalism† was so widespread one might consider it to be a constitutive element of all the redistributive/tributary world-empires the world has known. . . . For they did have the money and energy at their disposition, and we have seen in the modern world how powerful these weapons can be.Wallerstein's proto-capitalism also negates the uniqueness of his â€Å"modern-world-capitalist-system. † He even acknow ledges â€Å"All the empirical work of the past 50 years on these other systems has tended to reveal that they had much more extensive commodification than previously suspected. † (Wallerstein, 586-87, 613, 575) Thus, Europe's incursion into Asia after 1500 succeeded only after about three centuries, when Ottoman, Moghul, and Qing rule was weakened for other reasons. In the global economy, these and other economies competed with each other until Europe won.Historians should concede that there was no dramatic, or even gradual, change to a capitalist economy, and certainly none beginning in Europe in the sixteenth century. In conclusion it is useful to cite an Indian historian who writes that â€Å"the ceaseless quest of modern historians looking for the ‘origins' and roots of capitalism is not much better than the alchemist's search for the philosopher's stone that transforms base metal into gold. † It is better for historians to abandon the chimera of a uniquely capitalist mode of production emerging in western Europe.It is far more accurate and important to recognize that the fall of the East preceded the rise of the West, and even that is only true if we date the rise of the West after 1800. The West and the East were only parts of a single, age-old, world economic system, within which all of these changes took place, then and now. The historian Leopold von Ranke is known for having pleaded for writing history â€Å"as it really was,† but he also wrote that there is no history but world history. (Andre Gunder Frank, 1994) Reference: Gunder Frank, 1994. The World Economic System in Asia before European Hegemony; The Historian, Vol.56 Dennis O. Flynn, 1991. â€Å"Comparing the Tokugawa Shogunate with Hapsburg Spain: Two Silver-based Empires in a Global Setting,† in The Political Economy of Merchant Empires: State Power and World Trade, 1350-1750, ed. James D. Tracy (Cambridge), 332-359. Jack A. Goldstone, 1991. Revolutions and Rebellions in the Early Modern World (Berkeley); William S. Atwell, â€Å"Some Observations on the ‘Seventeenth Century Crisis' in China and Japan,† Journal of Asian Studies 45, no. 2 Wallerstein, â€Å"The West, Capitalism, and the Modern World-System,† 586-87, 613, 575.